Full-Face Coverings in Public Spaces: The Conflict between Islamic Dress Codes for Women and the Rise of Christian Nationalism in Europe
Nottingham City Council, in the East Midlands region of England, has recently, as part of its multi-agency Operation Reclaim initiative to tackle crime in Nottingham City Centre, authorised police and community protection officers to demand the removal of balaclavas and other face coverings where “a face covering is being used to help conceal a person’s identity in connection with crime or anti-social behaviour, or where it is worn in a manner that intimidates, harasses, alarms or distresses others.” Legitimate reasons for wearing face coverings under these circumstances include religious observance, medical or health-related purposes, or employment requirements. The exemption of burqas, in particular, has been criticised in some circles, adding fuel to the flames of ongoing Western culture wars.
Any attempt at comprehending the rationale for the use of face coverings by Muslim women must, of necessity, start with an understanding of the various types of Islamic dress. The hijab, derived from an Arabic term meaning “to cover”, refers to scarves, available in many fabrics, shapes, styles, and colours, that drape the head and neck while leaving the face uncovered. The niqab is a face veil with eyes either exposed or hidden behind rectangular mesh netting. The burqa is a one-piece outfit that covers the face and body from head to toe. There are many variations of headscarves and full body coverings, partly based on region of origin.
Some religions, other than Islam, may encourage women to wear head coverings under certain circumstances, including Orthodox Judaism, Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholic, Sikhism, and Anabaptist groups (Amish and Mennonites). The requirement for keeping the face covered, on the other hand, appears to be confined to certain interpretations of Islam. The question then arises as to whether this practice is based on the dictates of religion, or merely an expression of culture and tradition.
Muslims throughout the world are united in their belief that the Holy Quran is the only source of law that is authorised by God- one that is comprehensive and all-encompassing. Jurists who interpret the Quran appear to be divided, however, in their interpretation of the relevant verses pertinent to the issue under consideration. Two Quranic verses, verse 31 of Chapter 24 (Surah al-Nur), and verse 59 of Chapter 33 (Surah al-Ahzab) are often quoted as proof of the requirement for face covering, although opinions seem to vary in this matter. Additional sources of authority can be found in the hadith (reports of the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), although consensus on their precise meaning may be lacking. It should be noted in this context that, according to the Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyya, an Egyptian governmental Islamic advisory and judicial body: “The vast majority of jurists have ruled that a woman’s entire body is considered nakedness for all non-related men except the hands and the face. The exception of the face and hands is due to the necessity of women interacting with men, buying, selling, and the like.”
The ongoing debate in the West over the burqa covers many issues, including gender equality, freedom of expression, female oppression, and the desirability of integration into host communities, and even extends into concerns over national security. Events over several decades in the Middle East have led to a revival of Islamic religious and cultural identity in the West, only to be countered by fears of growing Islamicisation. The burqa and niqab are considered by some as incompatible with Western cultural norms and “values.” Opponents of their use contrast their high visibility within certain locations in the West with the prevailing situation in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, where foreigners have to abide with local dress codes on the pain of punishment. Setting culture wars aside, many otherwise unbiased citizens see facial coverings as a barrier to social interaction, only serving to further isolate their wearers.
The burqa and niqab have been banned from public spaces in seven European countries as of now, starting with France and Belgium in 2011, and followed by Latvia and Bulgaria in 2016, Austria in 2017, Denmark and Luxembourg in 2018, and Switzerland and Portugal in 2025. Public venues where face coverings are considered illegal can include schools, hospitals, public transport, courts, and government buildings. Violations can result in fines or mandatory civic education. Other countries have introduced partial bans in certain locations. There seems to be some variation in the zeal with which such bans are actually enforced.
We are a long way from resolving controversies over face coverings on religious grounds within Europe. Christian nationalism is on the rise in Europe, and the visible manifestations of Islam are a target for European nationalists. On all fronts, we appear to be reverting to an earlier, possibly medieval era of open conflict between Islam and Christianity. On this occasion, the differences appear to be mainly cultural and social, rather than based on matters of religious doctrine, and the protagonists are not necessarily driven by the demands of their respective religions.
Ashis Banerjee